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This Is How To Write An Effective Research Paper

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Writing An Essay? Here Are 10 Effective Tips

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Research Paper Writing Services By Bestessayseducation Com

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Ford, Gerald Rudolph

Ford, Gerald Rudolph Ford, Gerald Rudolph, 1913â€"2006, 38th president of the United States (1974â€"77), b. Omaha, Nebr. He was originally named Leslie Lynch King, Jr., but his parents were divorced when he was two, and when his mother remarried he assumed the name of his stepfather. Admitted to the Michigan bar in 1941, he was a member (1949â€"73) of the U.S. House of Representatives, where he served as the Republican minority leader (1965â€"73). Ford gained a reputation as a loyal Republican who supported his party on virtually all issues. A consistent proponent of a large defense budget, he led the Republican opposition to the Great Society programs of President Lyndon B. Johnson . He was permanent chairman of the Republican National Convention in 1968 and 1972. In Oct., 1973, Ford was nominated by President Richard Nixon to succeed the disgraced Spiro T. Agnew as vice president of the United States; on Dec. 6, 1973, he was sworn in, becoming the first person to be appointed to the office und er the procedures specified by the 25th Amendment. As vice president, Ford traveled widely around the country, attempting to rally for the Nixon administration the support that had eroded as a result of the Watergate affair . His tenure as vice president was short, however; when Nixon resigned on Aug. 9, 1974, Ford became president. He pledged to continue Nixon's foreign policy and to work to curb inflation. One month later he issued a complete pardon to Nixon for all criminal acts perpetrated by Nixon while he was president. In the 1974 congressional elections the Republicans suffered substantial losses, attributable both to Watergate and to the economy. To deal with the economic recession, Ford proposed (1975) tax cuts, limited social spending (with continued high defense expenditure), and heavy taxation on imported oil. The Democratic Congress opposed many elements of the program. Ford was defeated by Democrat Jimmy Carter in the 1976 presidential election. See Ford's Sele cted Speeches, ed. by M. V. Doyle (1973); biography by D. Brinkley (2007); C. Fitzgerald, ed., Gerald R. Ford (1988). The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, 6th ed. Copyright © 2012, Columbia University Press. All rights reserved. See more Encyclopedia articles on: U.S. History: Biographies

Military Appearance and Uniform - 1045 Words

MILITARY UNIFORM AND APPERANCE In my essay I will research on the Military Uniform and Appearance. I will also research on the AR 670-1.This will help me understand and value more the importance of the uniform that I ware and it will be helpful in future reference in my military career. In my essay I will do some comparison from our military appearance and uniforms from other types of jobs that also use uniforms and have different standards that sets us apart from the everyday use of a regular uniform. In everyday life we see people wearing uniforms to be identify in the job that they do an the Army has the uniform to show that a member wearing it is a soldier and that’s what makes it so important. An Army†¦show more content†¦The uniform provides protection for the wearer. It is a type of camouflage because of the pattern to protect the wearer from being seen. It tells you s/he is a member of the US Army and its well trained in all aspects. The wear and appearance of soldiers in the United States Army are while in uniform should be neat. There should be no excess â€Å"things† in a person’s pocket but it should lie down flat. The person wearing the uniform should look neat and concise not drawing attention to themselves. Soldiers should look like a unit or group with everyone blending in not standing out because they look different. In the army it’s important to be part of a team. This is important in the armed forces especially because of what they do. In the army, marines, navy, and air force soldiers are called upon to fight in the battle field. If soldiers cannot show unity by doing a simple basic thing of wearing the same uniform alike how anyone could expect them to fight and win a nation’s battle. This is why the army has proved a guideline of regulations for soldiers in the United States Army to wear and abide by. This regulation is army regulation six hundred dash one which covers th e dress and appearance of army uniforms in any given situation. Personal Appearance Regarding Personnel Currently Serving in the United States Army. As stated in AR 670-1, Wear and Appearance of Army Uniforms and Insignia, paragraph 1-7 A,Show MoreRelatedMilitary Uniform and Appearance1066 Words   |  5 Pagesthe Military Uniform and Appearance. I will also research on the AR 670-1.This will help me understand and value more the importance of the uniform that I ware and it will be helpful in future reference in my military career. In my essay I will do some comparison from our military appearance and uniforms from other types of jobs that also use uniforms and have different standards that sets us apart from the everyday use of a regular uniform. In everyday life we see people wearing uniforms to beRead MoreWear and Appearance of Military Uniform Essay765 Words   |  4 PagesThe wear and appearance of soldiers in the United States Army are while in uniform should be neat. There should be no excess â€Å"things† in a person’s pocket but it should lie down flat. The person wearing the uniform should look neat and concise not drawing attention to themselves. Soldiers should look like a unit or group with everyone blending in not standing out because they look different. In the army it’s important to be part of a team and like teams that play basketball, football, soccer, lacrosseRead MoreSoldier and Appearance Military Appearance Essay634 Words   |  3 PagesPages Always Maintain Good Military Appearance Military Appearance In this paper I will discuss the importance of why a NCO or Drill Sergeant should maintain proper military appearance and why it is important. The NCO’s Creed first states that â€Å"no one is more professional than I†, so I am sure that means more than just appearance. It Premium 1553 Words 7 Pages Appearance Is a Very Important and Highly Regarded Concept in the Military. Appearance is a very important and highlyRead MoreThe Importance Of Maintaining Professional Appearance?1630 Words   |  7 PagesProfessional Appearance A soldier must maintain a professional appearance because it demonstrates a professional image, pride, and self discipline while maintaining a high standard of living as well as showing their professionalism. For example, when in the military the way a soldier presents themselves says a lot about not only but the military. Keeping a professional appearance includes, a proper haircut, a clean shaven face that is groomed and well trimmed facial hair, maintaining the uniform in goodRead MoreUniform and The Military1243 Words   |  5 PagesThere are many militaries throughout the world but the US Military is seen as the most professional and capable military in the world. We are perceived this way due to our rules and regulations that have branched from our fundamental principles and doctrine. Uniformity is one of our leading regulations in the military. Uniformity is what makes the military have a professional image. It is the basis of our instructions and regulations concerning the d ress and appearance of our military personnel. RecentlyRead Moremarines1072 Words   |  5 PagesMarine corps order for uniforms, appearance, and wear. Upon completion of this brief I am confident that you will have the knowledge and skills to properly wear the approved Marine Corps MCCUU uniform or â€Å"cammies† as commonly known. MCO P1020.34G is the Marine Corps order on uniforms and appearance. Its purpose is to ensure Marines present the best possible image at all times and continue to lead the way in military presence. This brief will focus mainly on the common uniforms worn by marines inRead MoreUniform Appearance Of The Army Uniform1441 Words   |  6 Pages Ibasfalean Matthew B Co 2-124 uniform appearance the importance of following orders The Army uniform, from the soiled cotton clothing from the Revolutionary War to the digital pattern fatigues of today. For a Soldier in the United State military the uniform continues that representation of are humble beginnings. In fact during the Revolutionary War white facings were used to represent the infantry until about 1851 when light or Saxony blueRead MoreAlways Maintain Good Military Appearance1561 Words   |  7 PagesMilitary Appearance In this paper I will discuss the importance of why a NCO or Drill Sergeant should maintain proper military appearance and why it is important. The NCO’s Creed first states that â€Å"no one is more professional than I†, so I am sure that means more than just appearance. It is a statement that includes mannerism, attitude, professionalism etc. It also says that NCOs are the backbone of the Army, which will also tell you that we serve a critical role. Even though I respect theRead MoreThe Limits Of Free Speech And Expression Upon Members Of The Military1709 Words   |  7 Pagesexpression upon members of the military are governed today by the Uniform Code of Military Justice (UCMJ). The UCMJ is governed by Congress under the authority of the United States Constitution in Article I, Section 8; stating â€Å"To provide for organizing, arming, and disciplining, the Militia, and for governing such Part of them as may be employed in the Service of the United States.† Thus giving the Congress special abilities to restrict First Amendment rights to military members as they deem necessaryRead MoreDiscipline: United States Army and Soldier985 Words   |  4 PagesThe Importance Of Being disciplined/keeping an appearance In The U.S. Army The following essay is a compilation of my personal experiences, definitions, and examples of how discipline is important to surviving in today’s U.S. Army. Discipline is increased when one constantly adheres to the standards set by his superiors and maintains not only his bering, but appearance as well. Discipline is: acting in accordance with the rules put in place and behaving in accordance to the rules of conduct

Do Muslim Women Need Saving - 1484 Words

Do Muslim Women Need Saving? : A Review By Johanna Loepke With all of its good intentions, people attempting to swoop in and ‘rescue’ Muslim women from what they believe to be an oppressive and violent culture, is actually doing more harm than good. In the novel, Do Muslim Women Need Saving?, Lila Abu-Lughod explores how this type of sympathetic aid from these seemingly superior, progressive, Western countries can reinforce negative stereotypes about women in the place she calls IslamLand (an overarching and ignorant term for where all Muslims reside). The author investigates the consequences of this post 9/11 concern about Muslim women in government and in the media. She explains how the power of choice is relative, Muslim women’s†¦show more content†¦These seemingly known topics are turned upside down as we discover the truth behind each one. After this, the author has us hooked. The structure entices the reader to dive into more complicated material such as honor crimes, social life of women’s rights, and anthropology. The first chapter explores questions of possible Islamic liberation and why, given the choice, women don’t remove their burqas. In response to that first query, the author advocates that freedom and liberation for a country should be based on its people’s desires and values instead of what Westerners believe is the best way of life. Unfortunately, a key finding in this chapter was that the United States took advantage of Afghan women’s situation by using their rescue from the Taliban-and-the-terrorists as a justification for the War on Terror. Westerners view head coverings like burqas/hijabs as restrictive, a symbol of the patriarchy. In fact, many Middle Eastern women describe burqas as ‘portable seclusion’ that enables them to move out of segregated living spaces. Veils are worn as fashion statements or to express piety/virtue or belonging to a household. This exact worrisome practice of colonial feminism focuses more on the religious and cultural practices that persecute women, rather than more destructive issues like poverty, illness, malnutrition, politics, or lack of

Titration of Calcium HydroxideG Free Essays

We did this by titrating Hydrochloric Acid into 10 com of Calcium Hydroxide. As we titrated HCI into the Calcium Hydroxide solution, the phenolphthalein’s pink shade given to the Calcium Hydroxide slowly became clearer until the complete lack of pink color in the solution of base and acid. My value of 1. We will write a custom essay sample on Titration of Calcium HydroxideG or any similar topic only for you Order Now 58 g/mol was close to the accepted value of . 59 g/mol with only a 0. 6 + 0. 007% error, which is almost identical to the theoretical value. Because of such a small percentage error, one can attribute the error to random error, and not systematic because of its small value. Limitation/weakness How much did it affect my result Human error exists even outside uncertainty, where the HCI solution was possibly not correctly stirred along with the Calcium Hydroxide. Because of the fact that this is a titration experiment, the stirring and conglomeration of hydrochloric acid and calcium hydroxide needed to be constant in order for the reaction and correct mount of hydrochloric acid was used to neutralize the basic aspect of calcium hydroxide. Because of the inconsistent stirring, there must have been a small amount of error attributed to this limitation, though it may not look as much. Possibility: The Calcium Hydroxide solid that did not dissolve into the water may have passed the filter into the actual solution used, causing discrepancies in the data. A second limitation/weakness that may have caused our error is because of the fact that we may not have been careful enough with the filtration of the saturated Calcium Hydroxide. Because the filters themselves may not have been perfect experiment might have taken a wrong turn with solid Calcium Hydroxide within the solution as well, needing a smidgen more Hydrochloric Acid to neutralize it. Evaluation of quality of the result: Although there is limitations to our measuring, since we were only able to measure to 2 decimals as a volume, this experiment is still a valid way to figure out the concentration of Calcium Hydroxide with Just the amount and concentration of Hydrochloric Acid, and can be used by other scientists who would theoretically have no idea about how to go about the method of determining the concentration of Calcium Hydroxide. Limitation or weakness Improvement 1 . Human error exists even outside uncertainty, where the HCI solution was possibly not correctly stirred along with the Calcium Hydroxide. To lower this error and improve this limitation, we could have the same person stir the solution/titration constantly, with more precision and concentration over this mixture, as to get the correct amount of HCI needed to neutralize the solution without any disagreements over what neutralized means or not. With two people concentrated over specific tasks, the uncertainty would also become much smaller as well due to less error attributed to our mistakes. 2. Possibility: The Calcium Hydroxide old that did not dissolve into the water may have passed the filter into the actual solution used, causing discrepancies in the data. One of the biggest improvements we could make is that we could, this time around, not add such a large amount of Calcium Hydroxide powder into water blindly, as had been done before, so that we would be able to have more saturated water to work with, as opposed to what we had to work with at that moment when the experiment was done. By doing that, we would be able to reduce uncertainty that may have come along with the solid Calcium Hydroxide mixed in with the saturated solution. How to cite Titration of Calcium HydroxideG, Papers

The Sport Of Boxing Essays - Combat Sports, Individual Sports

The Sport of Boxing Boxing is often referred to as the "Manly Art of Self Defense." It is a very respectable sport that has a rough side to it. Boxing takes place in a sixteen to twenty-four foot square padded area called a ring. A boxing match (referred to as a bout) is usually a fast , violent show of strength, stamina, and skill. The boxers throw powerful punches as each tries to win the bout by means of points, knocking his opponent unconscious, or forcing him to give up the fight. While at the same time , each boxer must guard his head and body against the others punches by dodging or blocking the blows. The action may take place in any part of the ring as the fighters weave about or press forward, trying to get a chance for a successful blow or combination. Good boxers are strong, quick, skillful, and in top physical condition. They also have the courage and determination to fight in spite of pain and exhaustion. Boxers fight as amateurs or professionals. Most amateurs compete as members of and organization or team and some box in tournaments. Amateurs may not accept or receive money for boxing. Professionals fight for money and are often referred to as prize fighters. Boxing Regulations The rules followed for amateurs and professional bouts do differ for the United States and in international and Olympic Game competition. Weight Classes-Boxers compete in classes, or divisions, based on their weight. To fight in a particular class, a boxer may not weigh more than the maximum for that class. The professional weight classes from heaviest to lightest is Heavyweight, Junior Heavyweight , Middleweight, Junior Middleweight, Welterweight, Junior Welterweight, Lightweight, Junior Lightweight, Featherweight, Junior Featherweight, Bantomweight, Junior Bantomweight, Flyweight, Junior Flyweight. The Ring- The ring is a square platform measuring sixteen to twenty-four feet on each side. For professional championship bouts, the boxers may select the size of the ring within these limits on the approval of the local boxing commission. At least three ropes attached to a post at each corner, surround the ring. The floor of the ring has a canvas covering stretched over felt or foam rubber. The ring floor stands three to four feet higher than the floor of the arena. Equipment- A boxers hands are wrapped in soft cloth bandages , over the bandages he wears padded gloves. His gloves soften his punches and protect his hands as well as his opponent from injury. The gloves weigh eight or ten ounces. Boxers wear trunks and light weight shoes that lace just above the ankle. A mouthpiece of hard rubber protects the teeth, and a plastic cup protects the sex organs. Both amateur and professionals wear a protective leather helmet when training. Amateur fighters may wear a helmet in actual competition, though professionals do not. The helmet covers the back and sides of the head and ears. Time periods- Time periods of a boxing match are referred to as rounds. Each round lasts two or three minutes in amateur bouts. Rounds in major professional bouts last three minutes. In all matches there is a one minute rest period between rounds. A professional bout may be scheduled for four to fifteen rounds . Most professional championships are scheduled for twelve or fifteen rounds. Amateur fights are three to six rounds. All amateur championships are scheduled for three rounds. Fight Officials- During a round, the referee is the only person in the ring besides the boxers. He sees that the fighters obey the rules. The referee warns a boxer that disobeys a rule. He may disqualify a fighter for committing a serious violation or too many violations. Two or three judges sit along ringside and score most fights. However, amateur championship fights require two judges. The time keeper keeps track of time and sounds a bell to signal the beginning and end of each round. An official ring physician is present at every bout to provide medical treatment if needed. The physician then advises the referee how serious an injured fighters condition may be. Scoring a Fight- A boxer wins a fight by (1) a knockout, (2) a technical knockout, or (3) a decision. Sometimes, a professional bout may end in a draw, with neither fighter declared the winner. Amateur fights cannot win in a draw. In a close bout, the amateur who showed better style or committed fewer violations may be awarded the winner. A

Exchange Systems, Trade Networks, and Archaeology

Exchange Systems, Trade Networks, and Archaeology An exchange system or trade network can be defined as any manner in which consumers connect with producers. Regional exchange studies in archaeology describe the networks that people used to gain, barter for, purchase, or otherwise obtain raw material, goods, services and ideas from the producers or sources, and to move those goods across the landscape. The purpose of exchange systems can be to fulfill both basic and luxury needs. Archaeologists identify networks of exchange by using a variety of analytical techniques on material culture, and by identifying raw material quarries and manufacturing techniques for specific types of artifacts. Exchange systems have been a focus of archaeological research since the mid-19th century  when chemical analyses were first used to identify the distribution of metal artifacts from central Europe. One pioneer study is that of archaeologist Anna Shepard who during the 1930s and 40s used the presence of mineral inclusions in pottery sherds to provide evidence for a widespread trade and exchange network throughout the southwestern United States. Economic Anthropology The underpinnings of the exchange systems research were strongly influenced by Karl Polyani in the 1940s and 50s. Polyani, an economic anthropologist, described three types of trading exchange: reciprocity, redistribution, and market exchange. Reciprocity and redistribution, said Polyani, are methods that are embedded in long-range relationships that imply trust and confidence: markets, on the other hand, are self-regulating and disembedded from trust relationships between producers and consumers. Reciprocity is a behavioral system of trade, which is based on the more or less equal sharing of goods and services. Reciprocity could be defined simply as you scratch my back, Ill scratch yours: you do something for me, Ill reciprocate by doing something for you. Ill watch your cows, youll provide my family with milk.Redistribution involves a collection point from which goods are apportioned out. In a typical redistribution system, a village chief collects a percentage of the produce in a village, and provides it to members of the group based on need, gifts, feasting: any one of a number of etiquette rules that have been established in a given society.Market exchange involves an organized institution, in which goods producers congregate at specified locations at specified times. Either barter or money exchange is involved ​in order to allow consumers to obtain required goods and services from purveyors. Polyani himself argued that markets may or may not be integrated within c ommunity networks. Identifying Exchange Networks Anthropologists can go into a community and determine the existing exchange networks by talking to the local residents and observing the processes: but archaeologists must work from what David Clarke once called indirect traces in bad samples. Pioneers in the archaeological study of exchange systems include Colin Renfrew, who argued that it was important to study trade because the institution of a trade network is a causal factor for cultural change. Archaeological evidence for the movement of goods across the landscape has been identified by a series of technological innovations, building from Anna Shepards research. In general, sourcing artifacts- identifying where a particular raw material came from- involves a series of laboratory tests on artifacts which are then compared to known similar materials. Chemical analysis techniques used to identify raw material sources include Neutron Activation Analysis (NAA), X-ray fluorescence (XRF) and various spectrographic methods, among a wide and growing number of laboratory techniques. In addition to identifying the source or quarry where raw materials were obtained, chemical analysis can also identify similarities in pottery types or other sorts of finished goods, thus determining whether the finished goods were created locally or brought in from a distant location. Using a variety of methods, archaeologists can identify whether a pot that looks as if it were made in a different town is truly an import, or rather a locally made copy. Markets and Distribution Systems Market locations, both prehistorically and historically, are often located in public plazas or town squares, open spaces shared by a community and common to nearly every society on the planet. Such markets often rotate: market day in a given community may be every Tuesday and in a neighboring community every Wednesday. Archaeological evidence of such use of communal plazas is difficult to ascertain  because typically plazas are cleaned and used for a wide variety of purposes. Itinerant traders such as the pochteca of Mesoamerica have been identified archaeologically through iconography on written documents and monuments such as stele  as well as by the types of artifacts left in burials (grave goods). Caravan routes have been identified in numerous places archaeologically, most famously as part of the Silk Road connecting Asia and Europe. Archaeological evidence seems to suggest that trade networks were much of the driving force behind the construction of roads, whether wheeled vehicles were available or not. Diffusion of Ideas Exchange systems are also the way ideas and innovations are communicated across the landscape. But thats a whole other article. Sources Colburn CS. 2008. Exotica and the  Ã¢â‚¬â€¹Early Minoan Elite: Eastern Imports in Prepalatial Crete. American Journal of Archaeology 112(2):203-224.Gemici K. 2008. Karl Polanyi and the antinomies of embeddedness. Socio-Economic Review 6(1):5-33.Renfrew C. 1977. Alternative models for exchange and spatial distribution. In. In: Earle TK, and Ericson JE, editors. Exchange Systems In Prehistory. New York: Academic Press. p 71-90.Shortland A, Rogers N, and Eremin K. 2007. Trace element discriminants between Egyptian and Mesopotamian Late Bronze Age glasses. Journal of Archaeological Science 34(5):781-789.

Analysis of A and P by John Updike

Analysis of A and P by John Updike Originally published in The New Yorker in 1961, John Updikes short story A P has been widely anthologized and is generally considered to be a classic. The Plot of the Updikes AP Three barefoot girls in bathing suits walk into an A P grocery store, shocking the customers but drawing the admiration of the two young men working the cash registers. Eventually, the manager notices the girls and tells them that they should be decently dressed when they enter the store and that in the future, they will have to follow the stores policy and cover their shoulders. As the girls are leaving, one of the cashiers, Sammy, tells the manager he quits. He does this partly to impress the girls and partly because he feels the manager took things too far and didnt have to embarrass the young women. The story ends with Sammy standing alone in the parking lot, the girls are long gone. He says that his stomach kind of fell as I felt how hard the world was going to be to me hereafter. Narrative Technique The story is told from the first person point of view of Sammy. From the opening lineIn walks, these three girls in nothing but bathing suitsUpdike establishes Sammys distinctively colloquial voice. Most of the story is told in the present tense as if Sammy is talking. Sammys cynical observations about his customers, whom he often calls sheep, can be humorous. For example,  he comments that if one particular customer had been born at the right time they would have burned her over in Salem. And its an endearing detail when he describes folding his apron and dropping the bow tie on it, and then adds, The bow tie is theirs if youve ever wondered. Sexism in the Story Some readers will find Sammys sexist comments to be absolutely grating. The girls have entered the store, and the narrator assumes they are  seeking attention for their physical appearance.  Sammy comments on every detail. Its almost a caricature of objectification when he says, You never know for sure how girls minds work (do you really think its a mind in there or just a little buzz like a bee in a glass jar?)[...] Social Boundaries In the story, the tension arises not because the girls are in bathing suits, but because theyre in bathing suits in a place where people dont wear bathing suits. Theyve crossed a line about whats socially acceptable. Sammy says: You know, its one thing to have a girl in a bathing suit down on the beach, where what with the glare nobody can look at each other much anyway, and another thing in the cool of the A P, under the fluorescent lights, against all those stacked packages, with her feet paddling along naked over our checkerboard green-and-cream rubber-tile floor. Sammy obviously finds the girls physically alluring, but hes also attracted by their rebellion. He doesnt want to be like the sheep he makes such fun of, the customers who are befuddled when the girls enter the store. There are clues that the girls rebellion has its roots in economic privilege, a privilege not available to Sammy. The girls tell the manager that they entered the store only because one of their mothers asked them to pick up some herring snacks, an item that makes Sammy imagine a scene in which the men were standing around in ice-cream coats and bow ties and the women were in sandals picking up herring snacks on toothpicks off a big glass plate. In contrast, when Sammys parents have somebody over they get lemonade and if its a real racy affair Schlitz in tall glasses with Theyll Do It Every Time cartoons stenciled on. In the end, the class difference between Sammy and the girls means that his rebellion has far more serious ramifications than theirs does. By the end of the story, Sammy has lost his job and alienated his family. He feels how hard the world [is] going to be because not becoming a sheep wont be as easy as just walking away.  Ã‚  And it certainly wont be as easy for him as it will be for the girls, who inhabit a place from which the crowd that runs the A P must look pretty crummy.

Sports Managers' Tasks Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Sports Managers' Tasks - Coursework Example Employees should voluntarily follow the provided directions to guarantee a perfect relationship between them and their managers. Leading includes motivating the employees and assisting them to follow the set objectives for the firm (Daft, 2008). Managers should serve as leaders in an ideal situation and adopt perfect leadership skills (Daft and Marcic, 2013). Various employee cultures affect the leadership styles in an organization. Corporate structures also matter in coming up with leadership skills due to the relationship between the junior and senior staff (Sims and Quatro, 2005).  Sports managers perform various leadership duties during sporting activities. In professional teams, the managers act as leaders that motivate and inspire coaches and players (Watt, 2004). Since most sports managers work for colleges and other social institutions, there is a need for communication between the team. The managers execute leadership functions while conducting both interpersonal and group activities. Sports leaders have to connect socially with the players in order to provide motivation during matches and training sessions. Additionally, some sports clubs are enormous; hence require more attention from the managers. Leaders should first identify what motivates the players and employ the strategies to ensure maximum output from the players (Summers, 2012). Sports managers have to deal with various staff including coaches and trainers that are also issued with roles of passing information to the players.It guarantees the monitoring of the performances of various individuals in the firm (Dyck and Neubert, 2010). The main aim of the controlling function is to ensure that the set aims and objectives are attained. The performance results are weighed against the goals after an evaluation of the firm (Koontz, Weihrich and Aryasri, 2004). Control also depends on the communication channels that assist in the comprehension of the objectives.

Management of food quality Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Management of food quality - Essay Example The integrated approach to food safety as adopted by the European Union aims at ensuring that the high levels of food quality are assured and that they are coherently done through measures that are farm-to-table like. This entails adequate monitoring and ensuring efficient functionality of its internal market. To be able to implement this approach, the governing body of the EU has had to develop effective health measures and legislations. Consequently, effective food safety control systems have had to be assured and evaluated to ensure their compliance with the set standards (TRIENEKENS & ZUURBIER, 2008). The safety of the food system is also ensured by independently carrying out a risk assessment different from the risk management. Keeping the quality and safety of food throughout the food chain requires both operating procedures to ensure the wholesomeness of food and monitoring procedures to ensure operations are carried out as intended. The food safety system is usually based on the principle that protection needs to be assured during the course of the food chain if the health of customers is to be sheltered. Primarily, quality management systems are designed to ensure compliance with third party and retailer standards (VOS & WENDLER, 2006). Food safety management systems principally control the specific food safety hazards associated with the product and ensure compliance with food safety legislation. Finally, the quality and safety of food depends on the efforts of everybody involved in the complex chain of agriculture production, processing, transport, food production and consumption. As the EU and the World Health Organization (WHO) put it succinctly - food safety is a shared responsibility from farm to fork. The European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) was established in the year 2002. It is an independent body that works in close cooperation with various scientific agencies and institutions in EU

A Comparison Between Death of a Naturalist and Digging Essay examples -

A Comparison Between Death of a Naturalist and Digging For GCSE course work we have to compare two poems from a foreign culture. The two poems we picked were both by the popular Irish poem ‘Seamus Heaney.’ The two poems we’re looking at ‘Death of a Naturalist’ and ‘Digging’ could be seen as autobiographical. ‘Death of a Naturalist’ is basically about a young boy who had a keenness for nature, which has disintegrated throughout a summer. ‘Digging’ is about the poet remembering his childhood, he writes about about digging as though it is patriotic of his family. He talks about fore fathers and how he will continue this tradition, not by digging on a farm but with his pen, writing. Although with seemingly different storylines, the poems actually start off quite similarly; with both poems taking you back you a specific time in the poets’ childhood. In ‘Digging’ the poet is remembering other people in his life, like his grandfather and father but with ‘Death of a Naturalist’ his memories are all introspective. In both poems the original plot is elaborated upon with ‘Death of a Naturalist’ taking a negative line and ‘Digging’ turning positive. In ‘Death of a Naturalist’ the poem is split into two stanzas; this separates the poets’ opinion in two, full of enthusiasm in one ‘I would fill jam pots full of†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ To the lack of enthusiasm in the second ‘I sickened, turned, and ran’ ‘Digging’ is split into many stanza’s of seemingly almost random length, nut when you look closer you see that they get longer when the poem read to better things, for example the poet get most enthusiastic when he remembers his grandfather this is reflected in the fact that this stanza is by far the longest at eight lines. .. ...athered there for vengeance’ There are examples of onomatopoeia in both poems although it isn’t used at length in either. I noticed ‘slap’ is used in both poems, both in descriptions of mud or dirt sentences, showing the link in the poets’ language. Overall I enjoyed both poems though I did prefer ‘Digging’ as I like the way the poet flicked back and forth through time. I could also visualise this poem more, like a film, which I liked. I also like the cast use of alliteration which made the poem kind of roll off your tongue. There is also a really good use of onomatopoeia in the poem in the second stanza. ‘Under my window a clean rasping sound’ This sentence really draws you into the poem and you can almost hear the rasping as the shovel sinks into the ground. To sum up, all of these factors and more are the reason as to why I prefer ‘Digging’

Summary by Uma Sekaran

CHAPTER I WHAT IS RESEARCH Research: is simply the process of finding solutions to a problem after a thorough study and analysis of the situational factors. Business research: systematic and organized effort to investigate a specific problem encountered in the work setting, that needs a solution. It comprises a series of steps designed and executed, with the goal of finding answers to the issues that are of concern to the manager in the work environment.Business research: organized, systematic, data-based critical, objective, scientific inquiry or investigation into a specific problem, undertaken with the purpose of finding answers or solutions to it. Yeah, ga usah bingung sama yang namanya mahluk bernama PENELITIAN. Intinya: penelitian itu kan nyelidikin suatu masalah buat nemuin solusinya. Prosesnya ga jauh beda sama usaha kita nyari kebenaran suatu gossip atau cari info tentang orang yang kita gebet. Bedanya: RISET BISNIS ini harus dikerjain secara sistematis, datanya jelas, dan a da dalil-dalil keilmuan yang sudah diakui dan terbukti keabsahannya.Santai†¦ semua orang pasti bisa menaklukan binatang yang bernama PENELITIAN ini; khususnya SKRIPSI (buat mahasiswa S1). Chayo! Pasti bisa! TYPE OF BUSINESS RESEARCH Two different purposes of research: †¢ to solve a current problem faced by the manager in the work setting, demanding a timely solution; (applied research). †¢ to generate a body of knowledge by trying to comprehend how certain problems that occur in organizations can be solved; (basic research). Applied research: research done with the intention of applying the results of the findings to solve specific problems currently being experienced in the organization.Basic/fundamental/pure research: research done chiefly to enhance the understanding of certain problems that commonly occur in organizational settings, and seek methods of solving them. CHAPTER II THE HALLMARKS OF SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH The main distinguishing characteristics of scientif ic research: 1. Purposiveness: started the research with a definite aim or purpose, purposive focus 2. Rigor: carefulness, scrupulousness, the degree of exactitude in research investigations. Good theoretical base and a sound methodological design 3.Testability: researcher develops certain hypotheses, then these can be tested by applying certain statistical tests to the data collected for the purpose 4. Replicability: the results of the tests of hypotheses should be supported again and yet again when the same type of research is repeated in other similar circumtances 5. Precision and confidence: †¢ Precision: the closeness of the findings to â€Å"reality† based on a sample. Reflects the degree of accuracy or axactitude of the results on the basis of the sample – to what really exist in the universe †¢ Confidence: the probability that our estimations are correct 6.Objectivity: the conclusions drawn through the interpretation of the results of data analysis ba sed on the facts of the findings derived from actual data and not on our own subjective or emotional values 7. Generalizability: the scope of applicability of the research findings in one organizational setting to other settings. The research sampling design has to be logically developed and a number of other details in the data-collection methods need to be meticulously followed 8. Parsimony: simplicity in explaining the phenomena or problemsthat occur, and in generating solutions for the problems.Introduced with a good understanding of the problem and the important factors that influences it; good conceptual theoretical model The reason for following a scientific method is that the results will be less prone to errors and more confidence can be placed in the findings because of the greater rigor in application of the design details. This also increases the replicability and generalizability of the findings. Makanya, ikutin deh aturan scientific method. Ibaratnya, meneliti juga ada rukunnya; sama kayak sholat. Kalo kita sholat rukunnya berantakan, ga tertib urutan – ga teratur, kan sholatnya jadi ga karuan tu†¦.Ga jelas juntrungannya. Bisa-bisa ga ada artinya or ga ada nilainya. Prinsip â€Å"harus bertindak sesuai rukun† juga berlaku dalam melakukan penelitian. BUILDING BLOCKS OF SCIENCE IN RESEARCH Deduction: the process by which we arrive at a reasoned conclusion by logical generalization of a known fact. Induction: a process where we observe certain phenomena and on this basis arrive at conclusions. HYPOTHETICO-DEDUCTIVE METHOD 7 steps in the hypothetico-deductive method: 1. Observation 2. Preliminary information gathering 3. Theory formulation 4. Hypothesizing 5.Further scientific data collection 6. Data analysis 7. Deduction CHAPTER IV RESEARCH PROCESS Research process for basic and applied research: 1. Observation: broad area of research interest identified 2. Preliminary data gathering: interviewing, literature survey 3. Problem def inition: research problem delineated 4. Theoretical framework: variables clearly identified and labeled 5. Generation of hypotheses: 6. Scientific research design: 7. Data collection, analysis, and interpretation: 8. Deduction: hypotheses substantiated? Research question answered?Kalau pada tahap ini hipotesis dan pertanyaan permasalahan belum terjawab, maka kita harus kembali ke proses 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, atau pun 7. Yang sabar ya say†¦( Kalau sudah terjawab, ya lanjut ke tahap selanjutnya; 9. Report writing: 10. Report presentation: 11. Managerial decision making: Yeah, tahap pertama pasti observasi dulu. Gue inget banget, waktu pertama-tama dulu gue bilang mau ngangkat Kampung Betawi buat objek penelitian. Aswin bilang â€Å"gini deh! Kamu observasi dulu tu Kampung Betawi selama seminggu penuh berturut-turut. Kalo perlu, lo ga pulang-pulang, diem aja lo disana.Liatin orang-orang yang dateng, ada apa aja disana, ngapain aja, mereka dateng dari mana, pokoknya perhatiin apa aja yan g terjadi di sana! †. Ga berenti sampe disitu! Gue disuruh wawancara si empunya yang berkuasa di Kampung Betawi itu. Tanya tentang Kampung Betawi, secara implisit tanyain juga masalah apa yang dihadapi sama Kampung Betawi, gali sebanyak-banyaknya informasi; untuk memahami objek penelitian lo. Dan yang ga kalah penting: tanyain mereka punya data-data sesuai kebutuhan lo ga; mereka bisa kasih data itu ke lo ga. Ini penting!Kalo mereka ga bisa kasih data sesuai kebutuhan lo, batalkan niat lo buat ngangkat tu objek. Gue saranin (sangat) lo ganti objek aja. Daripada tar lo repot belakangan, mending antisipasi dari awal khan! Oh, iya: ga ketinggalan, gue juga disuruh cari teori dan penelitian terdahulu yang relevan. Untuk memudahkan gue di masa mendatang. Kalo lo udah observasi dan preliminary data gathering, baru deh lo bisa menemukan masalah utama yang akan lo angkat, secara spesifik, apa†¦ permasalahan yang paling menarik, paling kritis, paling menggelitik, paling sensasiona l, yang paling membuat lo bertanya-tanya geregetan and penasaran!Silakan berkhayal†¦ Abis itu, dengan teori-teori yang lo temukan, lo bikin model deh†¦ Despite the fact that the research model is depicted and discussed in this book as if it were a step-by-step linear process, one has to bear in mind that it is not actually so in practice. For example, though the literature search and interviews might have been conducted before formulating the theoretical framework, one may have to go back and conduct more interviews and/or seek additional information from the literature for a clearer understanding, so as to refine the theory. Gue setuju banget sama pernyataan ini!Soalnya gue juga ngerasain harus balik lagi, balik lagi, balik lagi, sampe gue bener-bener ngedapetin apa yang gue mau. Interview, nemu teori, interview, nemu teori, cari ketersediaan data, AARGGHH!!!! Mo gila! Mungkin ini yang dimaksud aswin â€Å"kalo nanti ternyata penemuan kamu ga cocok, ya kita rombak lagiâ € . Sadis! Sialan. Tapi kita tetap harus sabar†¦ SEMANGAAAAATTT!!!!! Gue jadi inget pertanyaan Hermas: â€Å"kapan kita tau kalo penelitian kita udah bener-bener: BENER †. Dan aswin menjawab dengan sok romantis: â€Å"itu semua tergantung kecintaan kalian terhadap ilmu pengetahuan(†.Makanya, bikin penelitian tentang sesuatu yang benar-benar lo sukai, lo cintai. Jadi di tengah-tengah kegilaan dan kebingungan, masih ada alasan waras kenapa lo masih mau ngelanjutin tu penelitian: â€Å"karna gue suka banget! (selain karna alasan harus ngerjain skripsi supaya bisa lulus dari FE)†. Percaya deh, mengerjakan sesuatu yang lo suka bakal bikin HIDUP lebih HIDUP. OBSERVATION 1. Problems currently existing in an organizational setting that need to be solved 2. Areas that a manager believes need to be improved in the organization 3.A conceptual or theoretical issue that needs to be tightened up for the basic researcher to understand certain phenomena 4. Some research questions that a basic researcher wants to answer empirically PRELIMINARY DATA COLLECTION 1. Background information of the organization –that is, the contextual factors †¢ The origin and history of the company –when it came into being, business it is in, rate of growth, ownership and control, and so on †¢ Size in terms of employees, assets, or both †¢ Charter –purposes and ideology †¢ Location –regional, national, or other †¢ Resources –human and others Interdependent relationships with other institutions and the external environment †¢ Financial position during the previous 5 to 10 years, and relevant financial data 2. Managerial philosophy, company policies, and other structural aspects †¢ Roles and positions in the organization and number of employees at each job level †¢ Extent of specialization †¢ Communication channels †¢ Control systems †¢ Coordination and span of control †¢ Reward systems †¢ Workflow systems and the like 3. Perceptions, attitudes, and behavioral responses of organizational members and client systems (as applicable) †¢ Nature of the work Workflow interdependencies †¢ Superiors in the organization †¢ Participation in decision making †¢ Client systems †¢ Co-workers †¢ Rewards provided by the organization, such as pay raises and fringe benefits †¢ Opportunities for advancement in the organization †¢ Organization’s attitudes toward employees family responsibilities †¢ Company’s involvement with community, civic, and other social groups †¢ Company’s tolerance of employees taking time off from the job LITERATURE SURVEY Good literature survey ensure that: 1. Important variables that are likely to influence the problem situation are not left out of the study 2.A clearer idea emerges as to what variables would be most important to consider (parsimony), why they would be consid ered important, and how they should be investigated to solve the problem. Thus, the literature survey helps the development of the theoretical framework and hypotheses for testing 3. The problem statement can be made with precision and clarity 4. Testability and replicability of the findings of the current research are enhanced 5. One does not run the risk of â€Å"reinventing the wheel† that is, wasting efforts on trying to rediscover something that is already known 6.The problem investigated is perceived by the scientific community as relevant and significant PROBLEM DEFINITION †¢ Narrow down the problem from its original broad base and define the issues of concern more clearly. †¢ It is critical that the focus of further research, or in other words, the problem, be unambiguously identified and defined. †¢ No amount of good research can find solutions to the situation, if the critical issue or the problem to be studied is not clearly pinpointed. †¢ A pro blem does not necessarily mean that something is seriously wrong with a current situation that needs to be rectified immediately. A â€Å"problem† could simply indicate an interest in an issue where finding the right answers might help to improve an existing situation. †¢ It is fruitful to define a problem as any situation where a gap exists between the actual and the desired ideal states. †¢ â€Å"Is this factor I have identified an antecendent, the real problem, or the consequence? † Problem definition or problem statement: a clear, precise, and succinct statement of the question or issue that is to be investigated with the goal of finding an answer or solution. Could pertain to: 1. Existing business problems where a manager is looking for a solution (applied research) 2.Situations that may not pose any current problems but which the manager feels have scope for improvement (applied research) 3. Areas where some conceptual clarity is needed for better theor y building (basic research) 4. Situations in which a researcher is trying to answer a research question empirically because of interest in the topic (basic research) CHAPTER V NEED FOR THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK Theoretical framework: a conceptual model of how one theorizes or makes logical sense of the relationships among the several factors that have been identified as important to the problem. This theory flows logically from documentation of previous research in the problem area. ? Integrating one’s logical beliefs with published research, taking into consideration the boundaries and constraints governing the situation, is pivotal in developing a scientific basis for investigating the research problem. ? Theoretical framework: discusses the interrelationships among the variables that are deemed to be integral to the dynamics of the situation being investigated. From the theoretical framework, then, testable hypotheses can be developed to examine whether the theory formulated i s valid or not. ? The entire research rests on the basis of the theoretical framework. VARIABLES Variable: anything that can take on differing or varying values. 4 main types of variables: 1. Dependent variable (also known as the criterion variable) 2. Independent variable (also known as predictor variable) 3. Moderating variable 4. Intervening variable Dependent variable: †¢ Variable of primary interest to the researcher The researcher’s goal is to understand and describe the dependent variable, or to explain its variability, or predict it †¢ The main variable that lends itself for investigation as a viable factor †¢ It is possible to have more than one dependent variable in a study Pantesan! Mungkin ini yang dimaksud aswin dengan pertanyaan yang selalu dia tujukan ke gue: â€Å"WHAT DO YOU WANT†¦.. tujuan lo apa sih Lo mau apa ha †. Nah, kalo kayak gini gue jadi bingung lagi nih. Jadi dependent variable gue jumlah pengunjung atraksi wisata budaya PBB atau keinginan mengunjungi atraksi wisata budaya PBB Duh jadi bingung mikir lagi deh†¦.Wahai teman, makanya selalu tanyakan dan pastikan â€Å"tujuan akhir apa yang lo mau †. Itulah dependent variable lo†¦ (hmm,,, sepertinya ini ga cuma berlaku buat penelitian deh, tapi dalam kehidupan nyata lo juga! what do you want!!! ) Independent variable: †¢ One that influences the dependent variable in either a positive or negative way †¢ When the independent variable is present, the dependent variable is also present †¢ With each unit of increase in the independent variable, there is an increase or decrease in the dependent variable also †¢ Variance in the dependent variable is accounted for by the independent variableModerating variable: †¢ One that has a strong contingent effect on the independent variable-dependent variable relationship †¢ Whenever the relationship between the independent variable and dependent variable becomes contingent or dependent on another variable, we say that the third variable has a moderating effect on the independent variable-dependent variable relationship †¢ The variable that moderates the relationship is known as the moderating variable Intervening variable One that surfaces between the time the independent variables start operating to influence the dependent variable and the time their impact is felt on it †¢ There is thus a temporal quality or time dimension to the intervening variable †¢ The intervening variable surfaces as a function of the independent variable(s) operating in any situation, and helps to conceptualize and explain the influence of the independent variable(s) on the dependent variable THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK ? It becomes evident at this stage that to arrive at good solutions to the roblem, one should correctly identify the problem first, and then the variables that contribute to it. ? After identifying the appropriate variables, the next step is to elabor ate the network of associations among the variables, so that relevant hypotheses can be developed and subsequently tested. ? Based on the results of hypotheses testing (which would indicate whether or not the hypotheses have been supported), the extent to which the problem can be solved would become evident.Theoretical framework: elaborates the relationships among the variables, explains the theory underlying these relations, and describes the nature and direction of the relationships. A good theoretical framework identifies and labels the important variables in the situation that are relevant to the problem identified. Berarti gue bener dong†¦gue ga ngikutin teori dan penelitian lainnya secara plek-plekan sama! Gue pake mereka dengan menyesuaikan diri dengan kondisi kasus gue, si PBB. 5 basic features that should be incorporated in any theoretical framework: 1.The variables considered relevant to the study should be clearly identified and labeled in the discussions. 2. The dis cussions should state how two or more variables are related to one another. This should be done for the important relationships that are theorized to exist among the variables. 3. If the nature and direction of the relationships can be theorized on the basis of findings of previous research, then there should be an indication in the discussions as to whether the relationships would be positive or negative. 4. There should be a clear explanation of why we would expect these relationships to exist.This arguments could be drawn from the previous research findings. 5. A schematic diagram of the theoretical framework should be given so that the reader can see and easily comprehend the theorized relationship. HYPOTHESES DEVELOPMENT Hypotheses development: formulating such testable statement Hypotheses: a logically conjectured relationship between two or more variables expressed in the form of a testable statement ? To call a relationship â€Å"statistically significant†, we should be confident that 95 times out of 100 the observed relationship will hold true ? Only a 5% chance that the relationship would not be detectedStatement of hypotheses: format †¢ If-then statement †¢ Directional ? The direction of the relationship between the variables (positive/negative) is indicated ? The nature of the difference between two groups on a variable (more than/less than) is postulated †¢ Nondirectional ? Do postulate a relationship or difference, but offer no indication of the direction of these relationships or differences ? It may be conjectured that there would be a significant relationship between two variables, we may not be able to say whether the relationship would be positive or negative ?Formulated either because the relationships or differences have never been previously explored & no basis for indicating the direction, or because there have been conflicting findings in previous research studies on the variables Null and alternate hypotheses â₠¬ ¢ Null hypothesis: a proposition that states a definitive, exact relationship between two variables ? States that the population correlation between two variables is equal to zero or that the difference in the means of two groups in the population is equal to zero (or some definite number) ?Expressed as no (significant) relationship between two variables or no (significant) difference between two groups †¢ Alternate hypotheses: the opposite of the null ? Statement expressing a relationship between two variables or indicating differences between groups †¢ If we reject the null hypothesis, then all permissible alternative hypotheses relating to the particular relationship tested could be supported Example: †¢ Directional (group differences) ? Null hypothesis: H0 :  µM =  µW H0 :  µM –  µW = 0 ? Alternate hypothesis: HA :  µM <  µW HA :  µM >  µW †¢ Nondirectional (group differences) ? Null hypothesis: H0 :  µAM =  µAS H0 :  µAM â€⠀œ  µAS = 0 Alternate hypothesis: H0 :  µAM ?  µAS †¢ Directional (relationship between 2 variables) ? Null hypothesis: H0 : there is no relationship between stress experienced on the job and the job satisfaction of employees H0 : ? = 0 ? Alternate hypothesis: HA : ? < 0 †¢ Nondirectional (relationship between 2 variables) ? Null hypothesis: H0 : ? = 0 ? Alternate hypothesis: HA : ? ? 0 Steps in hypotheses testing: 1. State the null and the alternate hypotheses 2. Choose the appropriate statistical test depending on whether the data collected are parametric or nonparametric 3. Determine the level of significance desired (p=0. 5, or more, or less) 4. See if the output results from computer analysis indicate that the significance level is met. If, as in the case of Pearson correlation analysis in Excel software, the significance level is not indicated in the printout, look up the critical values that defined the regions of acceptance on the appropriate table [(t, F, X2 ) –see tables at the end of the book]. This critical value demarcates the region of rejection from that of acceptance of the null hypotheses. 5. When the resultant value is larger than critical value, the null hypotheses is rejected, and the alternate accepted.If the calculated value is less than the critical value, the null is accepted and the alternate rejected. Hypotheses generation and testing can be done both through deduction and induction: †¢ Deduction: the theoretical model is first developed, testable hypotheses are then formulated, data collected, and then the hypotheses are tested. †¢ Induction: new hypotheses are formulated based on what is known from the data already collected, which are then tested. CHAPTER VI RESEARCH DESIGN †¢ Purpose of the study †¢ Types of investigation †¢ Extent of researcher interference †¢ Study setting Unit of analysis (population to be studied) †¢ Time horizon PURPOSE OF THE STUDY Exploratory study: à ¢â‚¬ ¢ When not much is known about the situation at hand, or no information is available on how similar problems or research issues have been solved in the past †¢ To better comprehend the nature of the problem since very few studies might have been conducted in that area †¢ When some facts are known, but more information is needed for developing a viable theoretical framework †¢ For obtaining a good graps of the phenomena of interest and advancing knowledge through subsequent theory building and hypotheses testingDescriptive study: †¢ To ascertain and be able to describe the characteristics of the variables of interest in a situation †¢ The goal: to offer to the researcher a profile or to describe relevant aspects of the phenomena of interest from an individual, organization, industry-oriented, or other perspective †¢ Present data in meaningful form, help to: ? Understand the characteristics of a group in a given situation ? Think systematically about aspects in a given situation ? Offer ideas for further probe and research ? Help make certain simple decisions Hypotheses testing: Explain the nature of certain relationships, or establish the differences among groups or the independence of two or more factors in a situation †¢ To explain the variance in the dependent variable or to predict organizational outcome Case study analysis: †¢ Involve in-depth, contextual analyses of matters relating to similar situations in other organizations †¢ Problem-solving technique †¢ Qualitative in nature, useful in applying solutions to current problems based on past problem-solving experiences †¢ Useful in understanding certain phenomena, and generating further theories for empirical testingTYPE OF INVESTIGATION Causal study: the study in which the researcher wants to delineate the cause of one or more problems Correlational study: when the researcher is interested in delineating the important variables associated with the problem STUDY SETTING Field studies: correlational studies done in organizations Field experiments: studies conducted to establish cause-and-effect relationship using the same natural environment in which employees normally fuctionLab experiments: experiments done to establish cause and effect relationship beyond the possibility of the least doubt require the creation of an artificial, contrived environment in which all the extraneous factors are strictly controlled. Similar subjects are choosen carefully to respond to certain manipulated stimuli UNIT OF ANALYSIS Unit of analysis: level of aggregation of the data collected during the subsequent data analysis stage. Depend on problem statement focuses. Individual: data gathered from each individual and treating each employee’s response as an individual data sourceDyads: interested in studying two-persons interactions, then several two-persons groups Groups: even though we may gather relevant data from all individuals compr ising, we would aggregate the individual data into group data so as to see the differences among some groups (missal jadi 6 group) Our research question determines the unit of analysis. TIME HORIZON Cross-sectional/one-shot studies: data are gathered just once, perhaps over a period of days or weeks or moths, in order to answer a research questionLongitudinal studies: data on the dependent variable are gathered at two or more points in time to answer the research question CHAPTER VIII OPERATIONAL DEFINITION Operationalizing the concepts: reduction of abstract concept to render them measurable in a tangible way Operationalizing: defining a concept to render it measurable, is done by looking at the behavioral dimensions, facets, or properties denoted by the concept Operationalizing the concept: ? They would probably have some typical broad characteristics, which we call dimensions. ? Examining each of the dimension and breaking each further into its elements ?These should somehow be o bservable and quantitatively measurable What an operational definition is not: †¢ Does not describe the correlates of the concept †¢ Does not consist of delineating the reasons, antecedents, consequences, or correlates of the concept If we either operationalize the concepts incorrectly or confuse them with other concepts, then we will not have valid measures. This means that we will not have â€Å"good† data, and our research will not be scientific. Yeah†¦kalo kita salah mengoperasionalisasikan suatu variabel, fatal akibatnya.Bisa-bisa kita salah bikin pertanyaan buat diukur nilainya. Jelek deh datanya. (kayaknya gue baru sadar deh kalo gue salah operasionalisasi. Hix. ) Tips agar tidak salah operasionalisasi variabel: ? Bikin landasan teori yang bagus! semua berawal dari landasan teori! ? Selalu temukan definisi yang tepat dari sebuah konsep ataupun variabel. DEFINISI itu kunci yang penting! Kalo kata Lovelock -si professor pemasaran jasa yang kita selalu puny a kunci cinta- : If you can’t define something, you can’t measure it, and what you can’t measure you can’t manage. Punya definisi yang tepat, pasti akan menuntun lo kepada operasionalisasi variabel yang tepat. Ini teori gue, hehe ((((( (berdasarkan pengalaman pribadi). Pantesan, aswin selalu bertanya pada gue: â€Å"ini definisinya apa?! Itu definisinya apa?! †. Hmmmm†¦. pantes†¦aku baru mengerti sekarang†¦. SCALES Scale: a tool or mechanism by which individuals are distinguished as to how they differ from one another on the variables of interest to our study 4 basic types of scales: nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio Nominal scale: One that allows researcher to assign subjects to certain categories or groups ?Assigned code number ? These number serve as simple and convenient category labels with no intrinsic value, other than to assign respondents to one of two nonoverlapping or mutually exclusive categories ? Note that the categ ories are also collectively exhaustive ? The information is to calculate the percentage (or frequency) Ordinal scale: not only categorizes the variables in such a way as to denote differences among the various categories, it also rank-orders the categories in some meaningful way ?Helps the researcher to determine the percentage of respondents who consider interaction with others as most important, those who consider using a number of different skills as most important, and so on Interval scale: let us measure the distance between any two points on the scale ? Helps us to compute the means and the standard deviations of the responses on the variables ? Not only groups individuals according to certain categories and taps the order of these groups, it also measures the magnitude of the differences in the preferences among individuals ? The origin, or the starting point, could be any arbitrary number ?More powerful scale than the nominal and ordinal scale, and has for its measure of cen tral tendency the arithmetic mean ? It measures of dispersion are the range, the standard deviation, and the variance Ratio scale: not only measures the magnitude of the differences between points on the scale but also taps the proportions in the differences ? It has an absolute (in contrast to an arbitrary) zero point, which is a meaningful measurement point ? The most powerful of the 4 scales because it has a unique zero origin (not an arbitrary origin) and subsumes all the properties of the other three scalesUse of 4 types of scales: †¢ Nominal scale: for obtaining personal data such as gender or department †¢ Ordinal scale: to rank the preferences or usage of various brands of a product by individuals and to rank order individuals, objects, or events †¢ Interval scale: when responses to various items that measure a variable can be tapped on a five-point (or seven-point or any other number of points) scale, which can thereafter be summated across the items †¢ Ratio scale: when exact numbers on objective (as opposed to subjective) factor are called for CHAPTER IXGOODNESS OF MEASURES Goodness of measures: reasonably sure that the instruments we use in our research do indeed measure the variables they are supposed to, and that they measure them accurately Item analysis: to see if the items in the instrument belong there or not. ? The means between the high-score group and the low-score group are tested to detect significant difference through the t-values ? The items with a high t-value (test which is able to identify the highly discriminating items in the instrument) are then included in the instrumentRELIABILITY Reliability: tests how consistently a measuring instrument measures whatever concept it is measuring †¢ Measure stability and consistency Reliability: †¢ Stability of measures: the ability of a measure to remain the same over time – despite uncontrollable testing conditions or the state of the respondents themselv es ? Test-retest reliability: the reliability coefficient obtained with a repetition of the same measure on a second occasion, the higher the better ?Parallel-form reliability: when responses on two comparable sets of measures tapping the same construct are highly correlated †¢ Internal consistency of measures: the items should â€Å"hang together as a set† and be capable of independently measuring the same concept so that the respondents attach the same overall meaning to each of the items ? Interitem consistency reliability: test of the consistency of respondents answer to all the items in a measure. To the degree that the items are independent measures of the same concept, they will be correlated with one another.Cronbach’s coefficient alpha used for multipoint-scaled items, Kuder-Richardson formulas used for dichotomous items. The higher the coefficients, the better the measuring instrument ? Split-half reliability: reflects the correlations between two halves of an instrument VALIDITY Validity: tests how well an instrument that is developed measures the particular concept it is intended to measure †¢ Whether we measure the right concept Validity: †¢ Content validity: ensures that the measure includes an adequate and representative set of items that tap the concept.A function of how well the dimensions and elements of a concept have been delineated †¢ Criterion-related validity: established when the measure differentiates individuals on a criterion it is expected to predict †¢ Construct validity: testifies to how well the results obtained from the use of the measure fit the theories around which the test is designed ? Correlational analysis: as in the case of establishing concurrent and predictive validity or convergent and discriminant validity ?Factor analysis: a multivariate technique that would confirm the dimensions of the concept that have been operationally defined, as well as indicate which of the items are mo st appropriate for each dimension ? Multitrait: multimethod matrix of correlations derived from measuring concepts by different forms and different methods CHAPTER XI POPULATION, ELEMENT, POPULATION FRAME, SAMPLE, & SUBJECT Population: the entire group of people, events, or things of interest that the researcher wishes to investigateElement: a single member of the population Population frame: a listing of all the elements in the population from which the sample is drawn Sample: a subset of the population, it comprises some members selected from it Subject: a single member of the sample SAMPLING Sampling: the process of selecting a sufficient number of elements from the population, so that the study of the sample and an understanding of its properties or characteristics would make it possible for us to generalize such properties or characteristics to the population elements ?All conclusions drawn about the sample under study are generalized to the population ? Xbar, S, S2 – ar e used as estimates of the population parameters ? , ? , ? 2 Reason for sampling: †¢ Self-evident †¢ Time, cost, and other human resources considered †¢ Sometimes likely to produce more reliable results Representativeness of samples: †¢ Rarely will the sample be the exact replica of the population from which it is drawn †¢ If we choose the sample in a scientific way, we can be reasonably sure that the sample statistic (e. . ,Xbar, S, S2) is fairly close to the population parameter (i. e. ,? , ? , ? 2) NORMALITY OF DISTRIBUTIONS ? Attributes or characteristics of the population are generally normally distributed ? If we take a sufficiently large number of samples and choose them with care, we will have a sampling distribution of the means that has normality ? This is the reason that the two important issues in sampling are the sample size (n) and the sampling design ?If our sampling design and sample size are right, the sample mean Xbar will be within close r ange of the true population mean (? ) ? The more representative of the population the sample is, the more generalizable are the findings of the research 2 major types of sampling design: 1. Probability sampling †¢ Simple random sampling †¢ Complex probability sampling ? Systematic sampling ? Stratified random sampling ? Proportionate and disproportionate stratified random sampling ? Cluster sampling ? Single-stage and multistage cluster sampling Area sampling ? Double sampling 2. Nonprobability sampling †¢ Convenience sampling †¢ Purposive sampling ? Judgment sampling ? Quota sampling PROBABILITY SAMPLING Probability sampling: when elements in the population have a known chance of being chosen as subjects in the sample Simple random sampling: every element in the population has a known and equal chance of being selected as a subject ? Best: when the generalizability of the findings to the whole population is the main objective of the study Complex probability sam pling: Systematic sampling: drawing every nth element in the population starting with a randomly chosen element between 1 and n ? Best: when the population frame is large, and a listing of the elements is conveniently available at one place †¢ Stratified random sampling: a process stratification or segregation, followed by random selection of subjects from each stratum. The population is first divided into mutually exclusive groups that are relevant, appropriate, and meaningful in the context of the study ?Best: when differentiated information is needed regarding various strata within the population, which are known to differ in their parameters †¢ Proportionate and disproportionate stratified random sampling: †¢ Proportionate: the subjects drawn from each stratum, members represented in the sample from each stratum will be proportionate to the total number of elements in the respective strata †¢ Disproportionate: the subjects drawn from each stratum, the number of subjects from each stratum will now be altered, while keeping the sample size unchanged Cluster sampling: when several groups with intragroup heterogeneity and intergroup homogeneity are found, then a random sampling of the clusters or groups can ideally be done and information gathered from each of the members in the randomly chosen clusters ? Best: when heterogeneous group is to be studied at one time †¢ Single-stage and multistage cluster sampling: the division of of the population into convenient clusters, randomly choosing the required number of clusters as sample subjects, and investigating all the elements in each of the randomly chosen clusters Area sampling: constitutes geographical clusters, when the research pertains to populations within identifiable geographical areas such as coutries, city blocks, or particular boundaries within a locality ? Best: when the goal of the research is confined to a particular locality or area †¢ Double sampling: where initially a sample is used in a study to collect some preliminary information of interest, and later a subsample of this primary sample is used to examine the matter in more detail ? Best: provided added information at minimal additional expenditureNONPROBABILITY SAMPLING Nonprobability sampling: the elements in the population do not have any probabilities attached to their being chosen as sample subjects Convenience sampling: collection of information from members of the population who are conveniently available to provide it ? Best: to obtain some â€Å"quick† information to get a feel for the phenomenon or variables of interest Purposive sampling: confined a specific types of people who can provide the desired information, either because they are the only ones who have it, or conform to some criteria set by the researcher Judgment sampling: the choice of subjects who are most advantageously placed or in the best position to provide the information required ? Best: where the collect ion of â€Å"specialized informed inputs† on the topic area researched is vital, and the use of any other sampling design would not offer opportunities to obtain the specialized information †¢ Quota sampling: a form of proportionate stratified sampling, in which a predetermined proportion of people are sampled from different groups, but on a convenience basis ?Best: for the inclusion of all groups in the system researched ISSUES IN DETERMINING SAMPLE SIZE 1. Precision ? How close our estimate is to the true population characteristic ? The narrower this interval, the greater the precision ? A function of the range of variability in the sampling distribution of the sample mean ? If we want to reduce the standard error given a particular standard deviation in the sample, we need to increase the sample size 2. Confidence ? How certain we are that our estimates will really hold true for the population ?Reflects the level of certainty with which we can state that our estimates of the population parameters will hold true ? A 95% confidence is the conventionally accepted level for most business research, most commonly expressed by denoting the significance level as p? 0. 05 ? At least 95 times out of 100, our estimate will reflect the true population characteristic The sample size, n, is a function of: 1. The variability in the population 2. Precision or accuracy needed 3. Confidence level desired 4. Type of sampling plan used 4 aspects while making decisions on the sample size: . How much precision is really needed in estimating the population characteristics of interest – what is the margin of allowable errors? 2. How much confidence is really needed – how much chance can we take of making errors in estimating the population parameters? 3. To what extent is there variability in the population on the characteristics investigated? 4. What is the cost-benefit analysis of increasing the sample size? Roscoe (1975); rules of thumb for determining sample size: 1. Sample sizes larger than 30 and less than 500 are appropriate for most research 2.Where samples are to be broken into subsamples (ex:male/female, etc), a minimum sample size of 30 for each category is necessary 3. In multivariate research (including multiple regression analysis), the sample size should be several times (preferably 10 times or more) as large as the number of variables in the study 4. For simple experimental research with tight experimental controls (matched pairs, etc), successful research is possible with samples as small as 10 to 20 in size Kalo menurut gue sih, tahapan yang paling genting dan paling kritis ya di pembuatan BAB 3 alias pembuatan/penentuan metodologi ini.Ibaratnya bikin racikan obat, BAB 3 ini kayak tahap ketika lo lagi menentukan takaran dosis setiap elemen ramuan (ya populasi, ya sample, ya lainnya). Kalo dosisnya kurang, pasien ga sembuh, merana harus menderita terus-menerus. Kalo dosisnya berlebihan, pasien over dosis, meledak na nti! Dua-duanya sama-sama gawat. Kalo lo udah bikin BAB 3 lo dengan benar, selanjutnya gampang kok, tinggal ngambil data or sebar kuesioner, analisa. Tingal jalan†¦. ga perlu berlari-lari jatuh bangun kedebak-kedebuk. Well, udah bisa berpikir lebih santai lah†¦.. Tapi inget!!!BAB 3 juga berasal dari BAB 2! Model penelitian lo kan berasal dari landasan teori di BAB 2. Salah teori, bisa-bisa salah model. Salah model, berakibat salah operasionalisasi variabel. Salah operasionalisasi variabel, salah kuesioner. Salah kuesioner, salah data. Salah data, tebak sendiri†¦. Tapi, BAB 2 juga berasal dari BAB 1 lho†¦. Lo kan harus tau permasalahan lo dengan jelas tuh. Apa yang jadi latar belakang permasalahannya, apa hasil akhir yang lo mau. Semua itu yang menentukan teori-teori apa aja yang lo butuhin untuk dicantumin! Hahahaha†¦.Intinya sih, semua harus dikerjakan secara berurutan yah: BAB 1-2-3. Inget prinsip â€Å"rukun† yang gue jabarin di atas†¦. Pokokn ya selamat mengerjakan BAB1,2,3 bolak-balik deh. 1,2,3 – 3,2,1 – 2,1,3 – begitu aja terus! Yang penting: sabar†¦ semua harus dikerjakan dengan ketenangan akal dan pikiran. Nikmatin aja prosesnya((( goodluck yo! CHAPTER XII 4 steps in data analyis: 1. Getting data ready for analyis 2. Getting a feel for the data 3. Testing the goodness of data 4. Testing the hypotheses GETTING DATA READY FOR ANALYSIS Editing data: ? Data have to be edited Information that may have been noted down by the interviewer, observer, or researcher in a hurry must be clearly deciphered so that it may be coded systematically in its entirety ? Incoming mailed questionnaire data have to be checked for incompleteness and inconsistencies Handling blank responses: ? Not all respondents answer every item in the questionnaire ? Blank because the respondent did not understand the question, did not know the answer, was not willing to answer, or was simply indifferent to the need to respond to the entire questionnaire ?Way to handle a blank response: †¢ Assign the midpoint in the scale as the response to that particular item †¢ Allow the computer to ignore the blank responses when the analysis are done †¢ Assign to the item the mean value of the responses of all those who have responded to that particular item †¢ Give the item the mean of the responses of this particular respondent to all other questions measuring this variable †¢ Give the missing response a random number within the range for that scale Coding: ? Code the responses Coding sheet first to transcribe the data from the questionnaire and then key in the data Categorization ? Set up scheme for categorizing the variables such that the several items measuring a concept are all grouped together ? Responses to some of the negatively worded questions have also to be reversed so that all answers are in the same direction Entering data ? Questionnaire data are collected on scanner answer sheet s or tha raw data manually keyed into the computer DATA ANALYSIS 3 objectives in data analysis: 1.Getting a feel for the data 2. Testing the goodness of data 3. Testing the hypotheses developed for the research Feel for the data: †¢ Examination of the measure of central tendency, and how clustered or dispersed the variables are, gives a good idea of how well the questions were framed for tapping the concept †¢ The statistics give feel for the data: ? The frequency distributions for the demographic variables ? The mean, standard deviation, range, and variance on the other dependent and independent variables ?An intercorrelation matrix of the variables, irrespective of whether or not the hypotheses are directly related to these analysis Testing goodness of data: †¢ Reliability: ? Testing consistency and stability ? Consistency indicates how well the items measuring a concept hang together as a set ? Cronbach’s alpha is a reliability coefficient that indicates how well the items in a set are positively correlated to one another ? The closer Cronbach’s alpha is to 1, the higher the internal consistency reliability †¢ Validity: Factorial validity can be established by submitting the data for factor analysis ? The results of factor analysis (a multivariate technique) will confirm whether or not the theorized dimensions emerge Hypotheses testing: †¢ Test the hypotheses already developed for the study Analisis. Selamat merangkai kata. Selamat merangkai logika! Ayo fitut†¦. Yang rajin dong ah! Jangan menunda-nunda! PEKERJAAN TEKNIS SPECIMENT FORMAT FOR REFERENCING [APA FORMAT] Book by single author Leshin, C. B. (1997). Management on the World Wide Web.Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Book by more than one author Cornett, M. , Wiley, B. J. , & Sankar, S. (1998) The pleasures of nurturing. London: McMunster Publishing. Book review Nichols, P. (1998). A new look at Home Services [Review of the book Providing Home Services t o the Elderly by Girch, S. ] Family Review Bulletin, 45, 12-13. Journal Article Jeanquart, S. , & Peluchette, J. (1997). Diversity in the workforce and management models. Journal of Social Work Studies, 43 (3), 72-85.